V
I
T
E
D
P
A
P
E
R
The
State
of
the
Art
of
Electric,
Hybrid,
and
Fuel
Cell
Vehicles
With
their
superior
fuel
economy
and
performance,
hybrid
vehicles
will
likely
increase
in
popularity
in
coming
years;
further
development
of
control
theory
for
hybrids
is
essential
for
their
progress.
By
C.
C.
Chan,
Fellow
IEEE
ABSTRACT
|
With
the
more
stringent
regulations
on
emissions
and
fuel
economy,
global
warming,
and
constraints
on
energy
resources,
the
electric,
hybrid,
and
fuel
cell
vehicles
have
attracted
more
and
more
attention
by
automakers,
govern-
ments,
and
customers.
Research
and
development
efforts
have
been
focused
on
developing
novel
concepts,
low-cost
systems,
and
reliable
hybrid
electric
powertrain.
This
paper
reviews
the
state
of
the
art
of
electric,
hybrid,
and
fuel
cell
vehicles.
The
topologies
for
each
category
and
the
enabling
technologies
are
discussed.
KEYWORDS
|
Electric
drives;
electric
machines;
electric
vehicle;
fuel
cell
vehicles;
hybrid
electric
vehicle
(HEV);
modeling;
power
electronics
I.
INTRODUCTION
Compared
to
conventional
vehicles,
hybrid
electric
vehi-
cles
(HEVs)
are
more
fuel
efficient
due
to
the
optimization
of
the
engine
operation
and
recovery
of
kinetic
energy
during
braking.
With
the
plug-in
option
(PHEV),
the
vehicle
can
be
operated
on
electric-only
modes
for
a
driving
range
of
up
to
30–60
km.
The
PHEVs
are
charged
overnight
from
the
electric
power
grid
where
energy
can
be
generated
from
renewable
sources
such
as
wind
and
solar
energy
and
from
nuclear
energy.
Fuel
cell
vehicles
(FCV)
use
hydrogen
as
fuel
to
produce
electricity,
therefore
they
are
basically
emission
free.
When
connected
to
electric
power
grid
(V2G),
the
FCV
can
provide
electricity
for
emergency
power
backup
during
a
power
outage.
Due
to
hydrogen
production,
storage,
and
the
technical
limitations
of
fuel
cells
at
the
present
time,
FCVs
are
not
available
to
the
general
public
yet.
HEVs
are
likely
to
dominate
the
advanced
propulsion
in
coming
years.
Hybrid
technologies
can
be
used
for
almost
all
kinds
of
fuels
and
engines.
Therefore,
it
is
not
a
transition
technology.
Fig.
1
shows
the
road
map
of
hybrid
technologies.
In
HEVs
and
FCVs,
there
are
more
electrical
com-
ponents
used,
such
as
electric
machines,
power
electronic
converters,
batteries,
ultracapacitors,
sensors,
and
micro-
controllers.
In
addition
to
these
electrification
components
or
subsystems,
conventional
internal
combustion
engines
(ICE),
and
mechanical
and
hydraulic
systems
may
still
be
present.
The
challenge
presented
by
these
advanced
propulsion
systems
include
advanced
powertrain
compo-
nents
design,
such
as
power
electronic
converters,
electric
machines
and
energy
storage;
power
management;
mod-
eling
and
simulation
of
the
powertrain
system;
hybrid
control
theory
and
optimization
of
vehicle
control.
This
paper
provides
an
overview
of
the
state
of
the
art
of
electric
vehicles
(EVs),
HEVs
and
FCVs,
with
a
focus
on
HEVs.
Section
II
tries
to
answer
a
fundamental
question:
why
EV,
HEV,
and
FCV?
It
also
looks
at
the
key
issues
of
HEVs
and
FCVs.
Section
III
reviews
the
history
of
EVs,
HEVs,
and
FCVs.
Section
IV
highlights
the
engineering
philosophy
of
EVs,
HEVs,
and
FCVs.
Section
V
presents
the
architectures
of
HEVs
and
FCVs.
Section
VI
provides
an
overview
of
the
current
status
of
HEVs
and
FCVs.
Section
VII
discusses
the
key
technologies,
including
elec-
tric
motor
technology,
power
converter
technology,
control
and
power
management
technology,
and
energy
storage
devices.
Finally,
conclusions
are
given
in
Section
VIII.
II.
WHY
EVs,
HEVs,
AND
FCVs?
Vehicles
equipped
with
conventional
internal
combustion
engines
(ICE)
have
been
in
existence
for
over
100
years.
With
the
increase
of
the
world
population,
the
demand
for
Manuscript
received
August
8,
2006;
revised
December
28,
2006.
The
author
is
with
the
International
Research
Centre
for
Electric
Vehicles,
University
of
Hong
Kong,
Hong
Kong,
and
the
Harbin
Institute
of
Technology,
Wuhan
University,
China
(e-mail:
ccchan@eee.hku.hk).
Digital
Object
Identifier:
10.1109/JPROC.2007.892489
704
Proceedings
of
the
IEEE
|
Vol.
95,
No.
4,
April
2007
0018-9219/$25.00
Ó
2007
IEEE
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